Interesting tie-up to @prathgodbole's post on feudal lords burning down peasant huts. https://twitter.com/adamscrabble/status/1289389413164658688

The question here is why would a system so exploitative & open to abuse- because there was a lot of abuse involved since Hobbes- was allowed to exist. https://twitter.com/prathgodbole/status/1289266878146207744?s=19

I've written about zamindari dynamics earlier on multiple accounts, along with a partial explanation for the origin of caste. Please read those if the material still survives.

Zamindari is the natural formalistic consequence of the "Big Man" system.

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_man_(anthropology)

Typical Big-Man balances being charismatic enough to attract Retainers willing to follow him- whether by account of his birth or strength or deeds- & being generous & just enough to win the long-term loyalty of his Community.

In PNG, Big-Man must balance Retainers & Community.

If he loses Retainers, he has no troops to defend Community or gather booty from enemies to distribute. He also loses access to specialized goods such as tools, beads, corals, & exotic feathers.

If he loses Community, he can no longer raise food stocks for feasting or militia.

Retainers & Community goals are usually at odds.

Community prefers to hide their cassava or pigs for the year instead of giving it to the Village. Young Retainers also try to steal daughters of Community. Both weaken Big-Man's authority.

This causes strife among the tribals.

This is especially dangerous. I'll explain why.

PNG Highlands are full of wooded, fertile, narrow valleys. Tribes compete for fertile strip of land & bountiful woods.

However life is difficult as it is for all cases of pre-modern society. Note I'm talking of early 20th Century.

Each tribal household can only use their family labour since there are no good draught animals. Even in places like India or China, such animals were often expensive & rare for small peasants.

But human labour also requires more food production, difficult in limited land.

Practically what would ensue is that peasants would go through periodic times of boom-&-bust.

Let's take case of Akiru, say a PNG free peasant-hunter in 1400 CE.

Akiru, age 15, lives in a time of plenty. Lots of rain, pigs, & recent flashflood cleared land & gave silt.

Akiru works hard. He stockpiles grain & hunts & smokes pigs. 1 adult can provide for 2 adults or 4 kids. 1 kid for himself.

At 20, Akiru buys a wife for sons. Since time for plenty, his wife Shim can devout labour for sons than for the farm.

This changes when Akiru is 35.

Maybe it's a dry spell or the silting situation is overdue or floods are late. Let's say- a flashflood that'll deposit rich silt for yams & taro is pending.

Now, 1 adult can only provide for 1.5 adults or 3 kids. 1 kid for 0.5 kid.

Akiru is wise however. He has travelled.

In most cases, free peasants are stupid & exchange spare cassava & smoked pig for alcohol.

But Akiru has invested in learning from old sage in cave.

He knows that blocking river & dredging fertile silt, he can make farm fertile again.

But that'll take 50 adults. Akiru has 4.

Now Akiru's sons can't marry.

Younger son leaves. Much sadness. Only elder son marries. Some happiness.

Next year, flood comes.

Farms are ruined. No farming possible. Some stockpiles are there, but they end over 1 year only. Starvation sets in.

Raiders come & kill them all.

Now let's say Akiru, when 15, went to Agaminu, the Big-Man of the neighboring valley.

Agaminu is cruel with pig eyes.

He tells Akiru. For every adult, I get 0.4 adult's worth grain. For every kid, 0.2 kid worth. Every 2 generation, 1 boy & 1 girl.

Akiru agrees.

Akiru & Shim work & produce enough for 4 adults & give 0.8 in tribute. They help Agaminu in off-season when he needs his fields tended. It's hard work with little free time.

But Agaminu, after his fields are done, loans them 2 water buffalo & iron plough, costing 4 years work.

Next year, Akiru & Shim have produced food for 6 adults. There's too much work to process Casava in time before rotting.

Akiru tells so to Agaminu. Agaminu gives him a thresher, brought from a far valley at great expense. For 0.1 adultfood, he lets Akiru process all his Casava.

When Akiru has son, Agaminu visits them. He gifts an iron spearhead, worth 3 years expense.

Akiru is now able to hunt 1 adultfood worth pig every year.

But next year, he's called to war. Agaminu has been attacked. Shim labours alone.

Akiru returns wounded & weak. Another year.

Next year, Agaminu returns.

His raiders have attacked & won revenge against enemy. He remembered Akiru who had helped in end & gives him a spoil- one wood handplough.

Now Akiru, even wounded, can produce 5 adultfood. Shim can do 3 adultfood.

They have 3 goys & 3 girls.

Agaminu comes again.

He says that Akiru has grown rich & only produces food. Not useful enough for Agaminu who already has lot of food.

He wants Akiru to give him 1 son for smelting ore & 1 daughter to gift Retainer as wife. In return, he will help Akiru dam a stream.

The steam is dammed.

Agaminu has spent long days with old sage. He sends skilled smiths, engineers, and 50 peasants to labour during off-season, the way he wants Akiru & Shim to work for him in off-days.

Akiru's son is skilled tracker. Agaminu gifts him old bow.

Akiru's family produces 12 adultfood in casava & 4 pigfood. They give 4 in tax. His 3rd son turns full-time hunter & gets 3 pigfood. In war, he's great asset. Gets slave-wife.

Akiru marries 1st son to trader's daughter, 1st daughter to rich farmer, 2nd to 2nd smith son's friend.

Year is 1650.

Akiru is 65. He has 18 family- 15 peasants, 2 hunters, 1 full-time warrior in his 1st grandson. Also 2 dammed streams, many pig, terraced casava farms. He has 4 hired workers & 2 slaves.

He goes to Agaminu & buys trading permit for 25 food & 2 iron.

Now Akiru can go to neighboring valley & buy own buffalo. He can buy own iron.

Akiru pays Agaminu for carpenters to build cart. They store all grain in Agaminu's Granary. They buy weapons from Agaminu's smiths. They help Agaminu build temple for old sage to worship in.

Now what if Agaminu was venal & stupid, instead of wise & just?

He takes Akiru's grain, rapes Shim, lets his Retainers steal their pigs for mocassions.

Akiru now has no incentive to work hard. Further if he hears of war, he will go join Priyu who is enemy of Agaminu.

Is Agaminu confident that he can defeat Priyu & his son Ekotu with his retainers alone, no need for militia?

Then he might choose to strengthen retainers by exploiting Akiru & Community. But then he will have less in long run than Priyu-Radu & glorious Empty, tamer of beasts.

On the contrary, what if Akiru withholds taxes from Agaminu?

He finds secret cave & hides with family when Agaminu comes. If Agaminu comes with force, battle might ensue. But if Agaminu decides to write off loss, Akiru is back to square one as described earlier.

Systems arose to enforce that neither Akiru nor Agaminu reneged on their covenants with each other.

Who maintained them?

Agaminu & Akiru fear Priyu & Ekotu, but they fear Old Sage in cave too who talks with Ancestors & Gods. So if Old Sage declares law, they will obey.

Agaminu & Akiru don't want to interfere with each other. So they make pact that Retainers can only marry Retainers, Community in Community. Sage's kids can marry next valley's Sage families. Traders are given leave so that they can work with both Agaminu & Priyu-Radu in peace.

This way, even if Akiru grows rich & armed, no need for Agaminu to fear him. Agaminu can spend wealth on dams & temples & ploughs while borrowing from traders & trader can recourse to Priyu if he doesn't repay. Sage can do study in peace without fear of not getting Casava.

In future:

1- Agaminu has great Castle with iron-armed Retainers.

2- Akiru has own village with iron-armed Elite & bone-armed militia.

3- Old Sage sets up great Monastery with few iron-armed monks.

4- Traders carry iron-weapons but can call Priyu for aid in trouble.

Agaminu & Old Sage also make deals with savage tribes of the hill-top & rich tribes of lowland to come for aid when called.

Mukanai kingdom is created.

It has granary, armoury & smith, monastery & temple, great farms, & 6-fold Army.

Now Agaminu can go to war with Priyu-Radu.